Recreational and occupational field exposure to freshwater cyanobacteria – a review of anecdotal and case reports, epidemiological studies and the challenges for epidemiologic assessment

Table 1 Cyanotoxins with public health significance from acute exposures

Toxin or toxin group	Classification by principal target organ systems	Toxin-producing genera	LD₅₀(i.p. mouse)	References
Microcystins	Hepatotoxins	Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Aphanocapsa, Arthrospira, Hapalosiphon, Microcystis, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Planktothrix, Snowella, Woronichinia	25->1000 μg/kg	[10, 19, 26, 125-128]
Nodularins	Hepatotoxins	Nodularia	30–60 μg/kg	[8, 26, 129]
Anatoxin-a, homoanatoxin-a	Neurotoxins	Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Arthrospira, Cylindrospermum, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, Planktothrix, Raphidiopsis	200–375 μg/kg	[8, 10, 18, 26, 130-135]
Anatoxin-a(s)	Neurotoxin	Anabaena	20–40 μg/kg	[8, 26, 132]
Saxitoxins	Neurotoxins	Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Cylindrospermopsis, Lyngbya, Planktothrix	10–30 μg/kg	[26, 127, 132, 136-140]
Cylindrospermopsin	General cytotoxin (multiple organ systems affected, incl. liver, kidney, gastrointestinal tract, heart, spleen, thymus, skin)	Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Cylindrospermopsis, Raphidiopsis, Umezakia	2.1 mg/kg (24 hours) 200 μg/kg (5–6 days)	[8, 10, 17, 132, 141-145]
Aplysiatoxin, debromoaplysiatoxin	Dermal toxins; probable gastro-intestinal inflammatory toxin	Lyngbya	107–117 μg/kg	[146-152]
Lyngbyatoxin A	Possible gastro-intestinal inflammatory toxin	Lyngbya	250 μg/kg (?LD₁₀₀)	[153]