|
Type of study
|
Cross-sectional, population-based
|
Cross-sectional, population-based
|
Case-control
|
Case-control
|
Cross-sectional, population-based
|
Cross-sectional, population-based
|
|
Study Population
|
115,801 births
|
184,676 births
|
539 controls
|
481 conrols
|
2,605,226 births
|
396,409 births
|
|
No of birth Defects
|
1,842
|
5,764
|
538
|
265
|
22,828
|
2,148
|
|
Exposure
|
Chlorine dioxide
|
Chlorination, High color
|
TTHMs 50–74 μg/l
|
TTHMs 50–74 μg/l
|
TTHMs >= 60 μg/l
|
TTHMs >= 20 μg/l
|
|
Reference
|
None
|
No chlorination, Low color
|
TTHMs 0 μg/l
|
TTHMs 0 μg/l
|
TTHMs <30 μg/l
|
TTHMs 0–4 μg/l
|
|
Anencephalus
| |
0.79 (0.15–4.23) (n = 46)
|
0.55 (0.26–1.10) (n = 164)
|
1.80 (0.76–4.40) (n = 89)
| |
1.96 (0.94–4.07) (n = 43)
|
|
Hydorcephalus
|
1.50 (0.30–7.30) (n = 36)
|
2.70 (0.77–9.51) (n = 68)
| | | |
0.74 (0.43–1.28) (n = 118)
|
|
Ventricular septal defects
| |
1.81 (1.05–3.09) (n = 279)
| | |
1.43 (1.00–2.04) (n = 408)
|
1.81 (0.98–3.35) (n = 59)
|
|
Atrial septal Defects
| |
0.92 (0.24–1.50) (n = 73)
| | | |
1.33 (0.39–4.58) (n = 19)
|
|
Cleft lip with/without palate
| |
0.85 (0.53–1.38) (n = 248)
| |
1.90 (0.81–4.50) (n = 117)
|
0.94 (0.83–1.06) (n = 2,909)
|
0.98 (0.73–1.32) (n = 358)
|
|
Cleft palate
| |
1.07 (0.35–3.27) (n = 95)
| |
1.00 (0.32–3.40) (n = 58)
|
0.95 (0.76–1.10) (n = 1,929)
|
1.56 (1.00–2.41) (n = 129)
|
|
Obstructive urinary tract defects
| |
1.99 (0.66–5.96) (n = 102)
| | | |
1.44 (0.66–3.14) (n = 49)
|
