From: Potential developmental neurotoxicity of pesticides used in Europe
Group of pesticides (n)* | Mechanism of neurotoxicity | Developmental neurotoxicity reported in humans | References | Developmental neurotoxicity reported in animals | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organophosphates (8) | Inhibition of AChE (+ interference with signaling cascades at low doses) | Reflex abnormalities in neonates + affected mental development | Altered programming of synaptic development in rats (Chlorpyrifos) | ||
 |  | Reduced head circumference in infants + anomalies in primitive reflexes (Chlorpyrifos) | Behavioural abnormalities including changes in locomotor skills and cognitive performance in rats and mice (Chlorpyrifos) | ||
 |  | Reduced birth weight and length + developmental delay at 3 years of age (Chlorpyrifos) |  |  | |
 |  | Visuospatial deficits (prenatal exposure) + increased reaction time (current exposure in children) | [11] |  |  |
 |  | Reduced short term memory and attention (Methyl parathion) | [12] |  |  |
Carbamates (5) | Inhibition of AChE (+ oxidative stress) | No reports were found | Â | No reports were found | Â |
Pyrethroids (7) | Prolongation of kinetics of voltage-gated sodium channels | Â | Â | Increased motor activity, lack of habituation, changes in mAChR density in mice | |
 |  |  |  | Learning changes in rats | [89] |
 |  |  |  | Changes in motor activity in rats | [90] |
 |  |  |  | Changes in sexual behaviour and higher activity of the dopaminergic system in rats | [91] |
 |  |  |  | Changes in mAChR expression in rats | |
 |  |  |  | Changes in blood-brain permeability in rats | [94] |
 |  |  |  | Affected development of reflexes, swimming ability, open field activity in mice (parental exposure prior to mating) | [96] |
Dithiocarbamates (EBDCs) (6) | Generation of ROS (metal chelating capacity, uncoupling of mitochondrial electron transport chain) The EBDC metabolite, ETU, inhibits thyroid peroxidase (synthesis of thyroid hormones) | Â | Â | Maneb (in combination with paraquat) induces loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta in mice | [132] |
 |  |  |  | The metabolite of EBDCs, ETU, induces malformations of the nervous system (corresponding to thyroid insufficiency) in rats | Reviewed in [126] |
Chlorophenoxy herbicides (11) | Not completely known: includes membrane damage, generation of free radicals, perhaps uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation | A case of cephalic malformations and severe mental retardation in infant whose parents were heavily exposed to 2,4-D | [150] | Hypomyelination in chicks (2,4-D) | [151] |
 |  |  |  | Deficit in myelin lipid deposition in rats (2,4-D) | [152] |
 |  |  |  | Delayed CNS development in rats (2,4-D) | [153] |
 |  |  |  | Increased size and densitiy of serotonin-reactive neuronal somata and increased fiber length in dorsal and medial raphe nuclei in rats (2,4-D) | [154] |
 |  |  |  | Oxidative stress in specific brain areas (midbrain, striatum, prefrontal cortex) in rats (2,4-D) | [155] |
 |  |  |  | Behavioural effects in rats including delay of righting reflex, negative geotaxis + motor abnormalities, excessive grooming and vertical head movements, hyperactivity (2,4-D) | [156] |
Bipyridyl herbicides (1) | Induction of oxidative stress | Â | Â | Involvement of developmental exposure to paraquat in later development of PD like features in mice | [174] |
 |  |  |  | Paraquat (in combination with maneb) induces loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta in mice | [132] |