Variables | All | Maternal arsenic exposure by toenail As | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low (< 0.5 μg/g) | Medium (0.5–1 μg/g) | High (> 1 μg/g) | p-valuea | ||
(n = 205) | (n = 82) | (n = 57) | (n = 66) | ||
Pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) (mean ± SD) | 21.7 ± 2.2 | 21.5 ± 2.2 | 21.5 ± 2.3 | 22.2 ± 2.1 | 0.064 |
Maternal age (years) (mean ± SD) | 26.6 ± 4.1 | 27.1 ± 4.3 | 25.7 ± 3.4 | 26.8 ± 4.3 | 0.184 |
Residential area (As in drinking water) [n (%)]b | 0.000 | ||||
Ba Sao (0.64 μg/L) | 31 (15.1) | 18 (22.0) | 10 (17.5) | 3 (4.5) | |
Kha Phong (0.60 μg/L) | 3 (1.5) | 1 (1.2) | 0 | 2 (3.0) | |
Thi Son (1.64 μg/L) | 66 (32.2) | 48 (58.5) | 10 (17.5) | 8 (12.1) | |
Hoang Tay (65.7 μg/L) | 30 (14.6) | 6 (7.3) | 11 (19.3) | 13 (19.7) | |
Nhant Tan (61.7 μg/L) | 67 (32.7) | 4 (4.9) | 23 (40.4) | 40 (60.6) | |
Van Xa (27.2 μg/L) | 8 (3.9) | 5 (6.1) | 3 (5.3) | 0 | |
Education level [n (%)] | 0.019 | ||||
Elementary school | 15 (7.3) | 2 (2.4) | 3 (5.3) | 10 (15.2) | |
Secondary school | 135 (65.9) | 51 (62.2) | 44 (77.2) | 40 (60.6) | |
Diploma | 40 (19.5) | 20 (24.4) | 7 (12.3) | 13 (19.7) | |
College graduate | 15 (7.3) | 9 (11.0) | 3 (5.3) | 3 (4.5) | |
Maternal occupation [n (%)] | 0.074 | ||||
Housewife | 32 (15.6) | 10 (12.2) | 9 (15.8) | 13 (19.7) | |
Agricultural worker | 91 (44.4) | 31 (37.8) | 26 (45.6) | 34 (51.5) | |
Factory worker | 44 (21.5) | 18 (22.0) | 11 (19.3) | 15 (22.7) | |
Employee | 30 (14.6) | 18 (22.0) | 10 (17.5) | 2 (3.0) | |
Vendor | 8 (3.9) | 5 (6.1) | 1 (1.8) | 2 (3.0) | |
Parity [n (%)] | 0.477 | ||||
1 person | 75 (36.6) | 32 (39.0) | 21 (36.8) | 22 (33.3) | |
2 persons | 100 (48.8) | 41 (50.0) | 30 (52.6) | 29 (43.9) | |
3 persons | 25 (12.2) | 8 (9.8) | 5 (8.8) | 12 (18.2) | |
≥ 4 persons | 5 (2.4) | 1 (1.2) | 1 (1.8) | 3 (4.5) | |
Antenatal care services [n (%)] | 0.464 | ||||
Province clinic hospital | 20 (9.8) | 9 (11.0) | 7 (12.3) | 4 (6.1) | |
District clinic hospital | 23 (11.2) | 11 (13.4) | 8 (14.0) | 4 (6.1) | |
Health center of commune | 21 (10.2) | 9 (11.0) | 7 (12.3) | 5 (7.6) | |
Private medical center | 125 (61.0) | 48 (58.5) | 32 (56.1) | 45 (68.2) | |
Not having antenatal care | 16 (7.8) | 5 (6.1) | 3 (5.3) | 8 (12.1) | |
Complications during pregnancy [n (%)] | 0.683 | ||||
No | 189 (92.2) | 74 (90.2) | 53 (93.0) | 62 (93.9) | |
Yes | 16 (7.8) | 8 (9.8) | 4 (7.0) | 4 (6.0) | |
History of miscarriage [n (%)] | 0.409 | ||||
Never | 175 (85.4) | 71 (86.6) | 52 (91.2) | 52 (78.8) | |
1 time | 23 (11.2) | 7 (8.5) | 5 (8.8) | 11 (16.7) | |
2 times | 4 (2.0) | 2 (2.4) | 0 | 2 (3.0) | |
≥ 3 times | 3 (1.5) | 2 (2.4) | 0 | 1 (1.5) | |
Urinary Cotinine (μg/mmol creatinine) Median (range) | nd (nd-8.03) | nd | nd (nd-8.03) | nd | |
Infant birth outcomes | |||||
Gender | 0.220 | ||||
Male [n (%)] | 109 (53.7) | 45 (54.9) | 30 (53.6) | 34 (52.3) | |
Female [n (%)] | 94 (46.3) | 37 (45.1) | 26 (46.4) | 31 (47.7) | |
Birth length (cm) (mean ± SD) | 49.8 ± 2.2 | 50.4 ± 2.0 | 49.1 ± 2.8 | 49.8 ± 1.4 | 0.001 |
Birth weight (kg) (mean ± SD) | 3.1 ± 0.8 | 3.2 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 0.154 |
Head circumference (cm) (mean ± SD) | 32.2 ± 2.7 | 31.9 ± 2.1 | 32.6 ± 4.0 | 32.2 ± 1.8 | 0.336 |