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Table 2 Characteristics of the five prospective studies of fluoride exposure and children’s cognitive and neurobehavioral, developmental and cognitive outcomes

From: Developmental fluoride neurotoxicity: an updated review

Reference

Study location, year

No. in high-exposure group

No. in reference group

Age range (or mean), years

Fluoride exposure

Outcome measure

Results

Assessment

Range or mean (mg/L)

[114]

New Zealand, 1986

1028 (total)

N/a

0–7

Drinking water fluoridation

N/a

RBSa and CBRSb

No association between duration of residence in fluoridated community and behavioral problems

[115]

New Zealand, 2015

992 (total)

N/a

5 and 7–13

Water fluoridation, supplements

N/a

WISCc

No significant association found between tablet use, use of fluoride toothpaste, or childhood community water fluoridation and IQ, respectively

[63]

Mexico, 2017

287 (total)

N/a

4 and 6–12

Maternal urinary fluoride (MUF)

0.88 (mean)

MSCAd; WASIe

Higher MUF levels were associated with lower scores on cognitive function tests in offspring

[24]

Mexico, 2017

211 (total)

N/a

3–15 months

Drinking water and MUF

0.5–12.5 (water); 0.16–4.9 (MUF, 1st trimester); 0.7–6.0 (MUF, 2nd trimester); 1.3–8.2 (MUF, 3rd trimester)

BSDI-IIf

MUF levels sampled during the 1st and 2nd trimesters were inversely associated with mental development in infants

[116]

Canada, 2018

275 (city fluoridation)

335 (no city fluoridation)

3.4

MUF, fluoride intake

0.06–2.44

WPPSI-IIIg

Higher MUF levels predicted lower IQ in males but not females; higher maternal fluoride intake predicted lower IQ

  1. aRutter Behavior Rating Scales; bConnors Behavior Rating Scales; cWechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; dMcCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities; eWechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence; fBayley Scale of Infant Development II; gWechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 3rd edition