Fig. 2

Audiences Targeted by the Specific Strategies Utilized to Manufacture Doubt. The placement of each strategy indicates which audience(s) were targeted by the indicated strategy. As noted by the legend, strategies that are bold and outlined are used to target all four audiences; strategies that are underlined are used to target three of the four audiences. Strategies: #1, Attack Study Design; #2, Gain Support from Reputable Individuals; #3, Misrepresent Data; #4, Suppress Incriminating Information; #5, Contribute Misleading Literature; #6, Host Conferences or Seminars; #7, Avoid/Abuse Peer-Review; #8, Employ Hyperbolic or Absolutist Language; #9, Blame Other Causes; #10, Invoke Liberties/Censorship/Overregulation; #11, Define How to Measure Outcome/Exposure; #12, Take Advantage of Scientific Illiteracy; #13, Pose as a Defender of Health or Truth; #14, Obscure involvement; #15, Develop a PR Strategy; #16, Appeal to Mass Media; #17, Take Advantage of Victim’s Lack of Money/Influence; #18, Normalize Negative Outcomes; #19, Impede Government Regulation; #20, Alter Product to Seem Healthier; #21, Influence Government/Laws; #22, Attack Opponents; #23, Appeal to Emotion; #24, Inappropriately Question Causality; #25, Make Straw Man Arguments; #26, Abuse Credentials; #27, Abuse Data Access Requests; #28, Claim Slippery Slope