Table 1 List of Strategies Used by Five Industries/Organizations to Manufacture Doubt

1

Attack Study Design

To emphasize study design flaws in A^ϕ that have only minimal effects on outcomes. Flaws include issues related to bias, confounding, or sample size

X

X

X

X

X

2

Gain Support from Reputable Individuals

Recruit experts or influential people in certain fields (politicians, industry, journals, doctors, scientists, health officials) to defend B^Δ in order to gain broader support

X

X

X

X

X

3

Misrepresent Data

Cherry-pick data, design studies to fail, or conduct meta-analyses to dilute the work of A

X

X

X

X

X

4

Suppress Incriminating Information

Hide information that runs counter to B

X

X

X

X

5

Contribute Misleading Literature

Use literature published in journals or the media to deliberately misinform, either pro-B, anti-A, or to distract with peripheral topics

X

X

X

X

6

Host Conferences or Seminars

Organize conferences for scientists or relevant stakeholders to provide a space for dissemination of only pro-B information

X

X

X

7

Avoid/Abuse Peer-Review

Avoid the peer-review process to publish poor literature, publish without revealing funding sources, use the journal name to add weight to claims, or minimize need for peer-review among lay audiences

X

X

X

8

Employ Hyperbolic or Absolutist Language

Discuss scientific findings in absolutist terms or with hyperbole, use buzzwords to differentiate between “strong” and “poor” science (i.e. sound science, junk science, etc.),

X

X

X

X

X

9

Blame Other Causes

Find related, alternative causes for negative effects that are reported or observed

X

X

X

X

10

Invoke Liberties/Censorship/

Overregulation

Invoke laws to emphasize equality and rights for expression of B, despite differences in evidence quality

X

X

11

Define How to Measure Outcome/Exposure

Attempt to set guidelines for ‘proper’ measurement of exposures or outcomes, while undermining guidelines used in A

X

X

X

X

12

Take Advantage of Scientific Illiteracy (media/individuals)

Emphasize scientific obscurity to confuse lay audiences, or deliberately disseminate unscientific or false but digestible information

X

X

X

X

13

Pose as a Defender of Health or Truth

Represent the goals of B as health-conscious or dedicated to truth

X

X

X

X

14

Obscure involvement

Ghostwrite, create shell companies, use attorney client privilege to hide association

X

X

X

15

Develop a PR Strategy

Devise methods for specifically reaching public audiences to spread B messages

X

X

X

16

Appeal to Mass Media

Appealing to journalistic balance, developing relationships with media personnel, preparing information for media personnel, invoking the Fairness Doctrine

X

X

X

17

Take Advantage of Victim’s Lack of Money/Influence

Silence or abuse individuals by out-spending or exploiting a power imbalance

X

X

18

Normalize Negative Outcomes

Normalize the presence of negative effects to reduce importance and make them seem inevitable

X

X

X

19

Impede Government Regulation

Overwhelm governmental regulatory agencies to slow or stop their function

X

X

20

Alter Product to Seem Healthier

Make modifications to harmful product to reduce ostensible negative effects

X

21

Influence Government/Laws

Gain inappropriate proximity to regulatory bodies and encourage pro-B policy

X

X

X

X

X

22

Attack Opponents (scientifically/personally)

Conduct targeted attacks on opponents by undermining their professional or personal reputations

X

X

23

Appeal to Emotion

Manipulate an audiences’ emotions to draw support for claims in the absence of facts

X

X

24

Inappropriately Question Causality

Argue that correlation does not equal causation despite the presence of strong evidence

X

25

Make Straw Man Arguments

Publicly refute an argument that was not made by the opposition

X

26

Abuse Credentials

Use qualifications in one discipline to assume authority in another discipline

X

X

27

Abuse Data Access Requests

Requesting access to data in order to misrepresent and attack, employing Shelby Amendment, Freedom of Information Act, etc..

X

X

28

Claim Slippery Slope

Illogically or falsely claiming that there will be disastrous consequences if B ideology is not supported

X

X