Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of the DHS variables used as controls in our analysis

246,207 (100%)

99,856 (37.8%)

164,351 (62.2%)

Urban

66,253 (25.1%)

18,664 (18.7%)

47,589 (29.0%)

Male

132,811 (50.3%)

53,332 (53.4%)

79,479 (48.4%)

Female

131,396 (49.7%)

46,524 (46.6%)

84,872 (51.6%)

High indoor air pollution due to the use of a solid fuel for cooking

251,836 (95.3%)

97,644 (97.8%)

154,192 (93.8%)

Wealth quintile 1 (poorest households)

67,608 (25.6%)

30,006 (30.0%)

37,602 (22.9%)

Wealth quintile 2

59,403 (22.5%)

34,360 (34.4%)

25,043 (15.2%)

Wealth quintile 3

53,837 (20.4%)

33,062 (33.1%)

20,775 (12.6%)

Wealth quintile 4

47,395 (17.9%)

31,651 (31.7%)

15,744 (9.6%)

Wealth quintile 5 (wealthiest households)

35,964 (13.6%)

27,676 (27.7%)

8288 (5.0%)

Maternal Education No formal education

120,534 (45.6%)

51,638 (51.7%)

68,896 (41.9%)

Mother Education Primary Education

91,418 (34.6%)

34,990 (35.0%)

56,428 (34.3%)

Mother Education Secondary Education

46,584 (17.6%)

12,433 (12.5%)

34,151 (20.8%)

Mother Education Advanced

5671 (2.15%)

795 (0.8%)

4876 (3.0%)

Maternal height (cm)

Mean: 158.4

Median: 158.3

Mean: 157.0

Median: 157.0

Mean: 159.3

Median: 159.2

Maternal BMI (kg/m²)

Mean: 22.6

Median: 21.8

Mean: 21.9

Median: 21.3

Mean: 23.0

Median: 22.1

Mother married at < 18 years of age

137,904 (52.2%)

55,762 (55.8%)

82,142 (50.0%)

Mother married at ≥ 18 years of age

126,303 (47.8%)

44,094 (44.2%)

82,209 (50.0%)

Safe drinking water source if the household had access to piped water into dwelling, yard or plot, public tap or standpipe, tube well or borehole, protected well or spring, rain water, and bottled water

156,973 (59.4%)

54,843 (54.9%)

102,130 (62.1%)

No access to Safe drinking water source

107,234 (40.6%)

45,013 (45.1%)

62,221 (37.9%)

Household had access to an improved sanitary facility such as access to flush to piped sewer system, septic tank or pit latrine, ventilated improved pit latrine, pit latrine with slab, and composting toilet

103,183 (39.1%)

34,021 (34.1%)

69,162 (42.1%)

No access to an improved sanitary facility

161,024 (60.9%)

65,835 (65.9%)

95,189 (57.9%)

In-utero PM_2.5 (μg/m³)

Mean: 36.4

Median: 31.1

Mean: 38.9

Median: 32.7

Mean: 34.9

Median: 30.2

Trimester 1 PM_2.5 (μg/m³)

Mean: 36.2

Median: 29.8

Mean: 38.5

Median: 31.0

Mean: 34.8

Median: 29.1

Trimester 2 PM_2.5 (μg/m³)

Mean: 36.3

Median: 30.3

Mean: 38.8

Median: 31.7

Mean: 34.8

Median: 29.5

Trimester 3 PM_2.5 (μg/m³)

Mean: 36.6

Median: 30.5

Mean: 39.3

Median: 32.1

Mean: 34.9

Median: 29.6

Early-life PM_2.5 (μg/m³)

Mean: 35.7

Median: 31.0

Mean: 38.0

Median: 32.6

Mean: 34.3

Median: 30.1

In-utero Temperature (°C)

Mean: 24.9

Median: 25.9

Mean: 24.8

Median: 25.8

Mean: 24.9

Median: 26.0

Trimester 1 Temperature (°C)

Mean: 24.9

Median: 25.6

Mean: 24.7

Median: 25.4

Mean: 24.9

Median: 25.7

Trimester 2 Temperature (°C)

Mean: 24.9

Median: 25.6

Mean: 24.8

Median: 25.4

Mean: 24.9

Median: 25.7

Trimester 3 Temperature (°C)

Mean: 24.9

Median: 25.6

Mean: 24.8

Median: 25.5

Mean: 24.9

Median: 25.7

Early-life Temperature (°C)

Mean: 24.9

Median: 26.0

Mean: 24.8

Median: 25.9

Mean: 25.0

Median: 26.0

In-utero Precipitation (mm/month)

Mean: 95.7

Median: 89.1

Mean: 92.4

Median: 87.0

Mean: 97.7

Median:90.4

Trimester 1 Precipitation (mm/month)

Mean: 99.3

Median: 82.1

Mean: 96.8

Median: 80.2

Mean: 101.0

Median: 83.4

Trimester 2 Precipitation (mm/month)

Mean: 94.8

Median: 76.3

Mean: 91.7

Median: 73.6

Mean: 96.7

Median: 77.9

Trimester 3 Precipitation (mm/month)

Mean: 92.9

Median: 74.3

Mean: 88.7

Median: 69.8

Mean: 95.5

Median: 77.0

Early-life Precipitation (mm/month)

Mean: 96.1

Median: 88.5

Mean: 93.2

Median: 87.2

Mean: 97.8

Median: 89.5