Table 2 Epidemiological studies on dietary phthalate exposure

Dickson-Spillman et al.[50] (Switzerland)

Cross-sectional

German-Swiss general population (n = 1183)

Relationship between diet clusters and calculated internal phthalate exposure

DEHP - "fatty, sweet, and ready meal" cluster > all others

DEP – "health passive" < all others

DBP - "fatty, sweet, and ready meal" cluster > all others; "healthy and supplements">"health-passive"

BzBP - 'healthy and natural" cluster > all others

Ji et al.[51] (Korea)

Intervention – Quasi experimental

Participants in Temple Stay program (n = 25)

Influence of strict vegetarian diet on urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations

5-oxo-MEHP - dairy

5-oxo-MEHP (females only) - vegetarian diet

5-OH-MEHP - dairy

5-OH-MEHP - vegetarian diet

MEP - vegetarian diet

MnBP - vegetarian diet

MiBP - vegetarian diet

Colacino et al.[27] (USA)

Cross-sectional

2003-2004 NHANES

Association between consumption of various types of foods and urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations

MEHP - eggs, poultry

MEHHP - fruit

(n = 2374)

MEOHP - fruit

MEHHP - poultry

MECPP - fruit

Sum DEHP metabolites - fruit

MEOHP - poultry

MBzP - fruit, tomatoes

Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - fruit

MECPP - poultry

Sum DEHP metabolites -poultry

MCPP - dairy

Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - poultry

MEP - potatoes, tomatoes, total vegetables, meat

MiBP - fish

MnMP - fruit

Sum of low molecular weight phthlates - tomatoes, total vegetables

Total phthalates - total vegetables

Rudel et al.[52] (San Francisco Bay Area, CA, USA)

Intervention – Quasi experimental

Families w/two adults and two children

Contribution of food packaging to DEHP and BPA exposure through fresh, organic, and plastic-free dietary intervention

MEHP - intervention

(n = 20)

MEHHP - intervention

MEOHP – intervention

(no changes in MEP, MBP, MBzP)

Sathyanarayana et al.[53] (Seattle, WA, USA)

Intervention –Two-arm, randomized study

Families w/two adults and two children

Efficacy of fresh, organic and plastic-free dietary intervention to reduce phthalate and BPA exposures

MEHP - intervention; dairy, spices

MEHHP - intervention; dairy, spices

Arm 1 – Intervention (n = 21)

MEOHP - intervention; dairy, spices

MECPP - intervention; dairy, spices

Arm 2 - Control (n = 19)

Sum DEHP metabolites – intervention; dairy, spices

MEP - intervention

MBP - intervention

Trasande et al.[28] (USA)

Cross-sectional

2003-2008 NHANES children and adolescents (n = 2743)

Association between consumption of various types of foods and urinary phthalate metabolites in children and adolescents

MEHP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; poultry

MEHP - fruit

MEHHP - fruit, soy; soy

MEOHP - fruit, soy; soy

MECPP - soy

Sum DEHP metabolites - fruit; soy

MBzP - fruit

MCPP - soy

Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - fruit; non-citrus fruit, soy

MEP - fruit, grain; fruit

MiBP - caloric intake

MBP - caloric intake

MEHHP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; poultry, discretionary fat

Sum of low molecular weight phthalates - fruit, grain; citrus fruit

MEOHP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; poultry, discretionary fat

MECPP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; discretionary fat

Sum DEHP metabolite concentrations - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; caloric intake, poultry, discretionary solid fat

MCPP - meat/poultry/fish; discretionary fat

Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; caloric intake, poultry, discretionary solid fat

MEP - vegetables

MiBP - meat/poultry/fish

Sum of low molecular weight phthalates - vegetables