Table 2 Epidemiological studies on dietary phthalate exposure
From: Phthalates and diet: a review of the food monitoring and epidemiology data
| Author/year (location) | Study design | Population/sample size | Outcome | Significant results | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Positive associations/correlations | Negative associations/correlations | ||||
| Dickson-Spillman et al.[50] (Switzerland) | Cross-sectional | German-Swiss general population (n = 1183) | Relationship between diet clusters and calculated internal phthalate exposure | DEHP - "fatty, sweet, and ready meal" cluster > all others | DEP – "health passive" < all others |
| DBP - "fatty, sweet, and ready meal" cluster > all others; "healthy and supplements">"health-passive" | |||||
| BzBP - 'healthy and natural" cluster > all others | |||||
| Ji et al.[51] (Korea) | Intervention – Quasi experimental | Participants in Temple Stay program (n = 25) | Influence of strict vegetarian diet on urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations | 5-oxo-MEHP - dairy | 5-oxo-MEHP (females only) - vegetarian diet |
| 5-OH-MEHP - dairy | 5-OH-MEHP - vegetarian diet | ||||
| MEP - vegetarian diet | |||||
| MnBP - vegetarian diet | |||||
| MiBP - vegetarian diet | |||||
| Colacino et al.[27] (USA) | Cross-sectional | 2003-2004 NHANES | Association between consumption of various types of foods and urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations | MEHP - eggs, poultry | MEHHP - fruit |
| (n = 2374) | MEOHP - fruit | ||||
| MEHHP - poultry | MECPP - fruit | ||||
| Sum DEHP metabolites - fruit | |||||
| MEOHP - poultry | MBzP - fruit, tomatoes | ||||
| Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - fruit | |||||
| MECPP - poultry | |||||
| Sum DEHP metabolites -poultry | |||||
| MCPP - dairy | |||||
| Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - poultry | |||||
| MEP - potatoes, tomatoes, total vegetables, meat | |||||
| MiBP - fish | |||||
| MnMP - fruit | |||||
| Sum of low molecular weight phthlates - tomatoes, total vegetables | |||||
| Total phthalates - total vegetables | |||||
| Rudel et al.[52] (San Francisco Bay Area, CA, USA) | Intervention – Quasi experimental | Families w/two adults and two children | Contribution of food packaging to DEHP and BPA exposure through fresh, organic, and plastic-free dietary intervention | MEHP - intervention | |
| (n = 20) | MEHHP - intervention | ||||
| MEOHP – intervention | |||||
| (no changes in MEP, MBP, MBzP) | |||||
| Sathyanarayana et al.[53] (Seattle, WA, USA) | Intervention –Two-arm, randomized study | Families w/two adults and two children | Efficacy of fresh, organic and plastic-free dietary intervention to reduce phthalate and BPA exposures | MEHP - intervention; dairy, spices | |
| MEHHP - intervention; dairy, spices | |||||
| Arm 1 – Intervention (n = 21) | MEOHP - intervention; dairy, spices | ||||
| MECPP - intervention; dairy, spices | |||||
| Arm 2 - Control (n = 19) | Sum DEHP metabolites – intervention; dairy, spices | ||||
| MEP - intervention | |||||
| MBP - intervention | |||||
| Trasande et al.[28] (USA) | Cross-sectional | 2003-2008 NHANES children and adolescents (n = 2743) | Association between consumption of various types of foods and urinary phthalate metabolites in children and adolescents | MEHP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; poultry | MEHP - fruit |
| MEHHP - fruit, soy; soy | |||||
| MEOHP - fruit, soy; soy | |||||
| MECPP - soy | |||||
| Sum DEHP metabolites - fruit; soy | |||||
| MBzP - fruit | |||||
| MCPP - soy | |||||
| Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - fruit; non-citrus fruit, soy | |||||
| MEP - fruit, grain; fruit | |||||
| MiBP - caloric intake | |||||
| MBP - caloric intake | |||||
| MEHHP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; poultry, discretionary fat | Sum of low molecular weight phthalates - fruit, grain; citrus fruit | ||||
| MEOHP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; poultry, discretionary fat | |||||
| MECPP - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; discretionary fat | |||||
| Sum DEHP metabolite concentrations - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; caloric intake, poultry, discretionary solid fat | |||||
| MCPP - meat/poultry/fish; discretionary fat | |||||
| Sum of high molecular weight phthalates - meat/poultry/fish, caloric intake; caloric intake, poultry, discretionary solid fat | |||||
| MEP - vegetables | |||||
| MiBP - meat/poultry/fish | |||||
| Sum of low molecular weight phthalates - vegetables | |||||