Outcomes
| |
TTHM
|
TTHM
|
TTHM
|
TTHM
|
---|
| |
0–4 μg/L
|
5–9 μg/L
|
10–19 μg/L
|
20+ μg/L
|
---|
| |
Reference
|
Low
|
Medium
|
High
|
---|
Any birth defect
| | | | | |
N
|
2,148
|
978
|
368
|
421
|
381
|
P (%)
|
0.540
|
0.540
|
0.660
|
0.510
|
0.510
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.23
|
0.95
|
0.94
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.21 (1.07–1.36)
|
0.97 (0.86–1.08)
|
1.00 (0.89–1.13)
|
Anencephalus
| | | | | |
N
|
43
|
19
|
9
|
2
|
13
|
P (%)
|
0.011
|
0.010
|
0.016
|
0.002
|
0.017
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.54
|
0.23
|
1.65
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.59 (0.72–3.52)
|
0.23 (0.05–1.01)
|
1.96 (0.94–4.07)
|
Hydrocephalus
| | | | | |
N
|
118
|
58
|
24
|
19
|
17
|
P (%)
|
0.030
|
0.032
|
0.043
|
0.023
|
0.023
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.35
|
0.72
|
0.71
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.36 (0.85–2.20)
|
0.71 (0.42–1.20)
|
0.74 (0.43–1.28)
|
Ventricular septal defects
| | | | | |
N
|
59
|
27
|
6
|
8
|
18
|
P (%)
|
0.015
|
0.015
|
0.011
|
0.010
|
0.024
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
0.72
|
0.65
|
1.61
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
0.74 (0.31–1.80)
|
0.65 (0.29–1.43)
|
1.81 (0.98–3.35)
|
Atrial septal defects
| | | | | |
N
|
19
|
8
|
5
|
2
|
4
|
P (%)
|
0.005
|
0.004
|
0.009
|
0.002
|
0.005
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
2.03
|
0.55
|
1.21
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
2.15 (0.70–6.60)
|
0.53 (0.11–2.49)
|
1.33 (0.39–4.58)
|
Tetralogy of Fallot
| | | | | |
N
|
24
|
13
|
6
|
3
|
2
|
P (%)
|
0.006
|
0.007
|
0.011
|
0.004
|
0.003
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.50
|
0.51
|
0.37
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.60 (0.61–4.23)
|
0.46 (0.13–1.61)
|
0.32 (0.07–1.47)
|
Cleft lip with/without palate
| | | | | |
N
|
358
|
155
|
55
|
84
|
64
|
P (%)
|
0.090
|
0.085
|
0.098
|
0.101
|
0.085
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.15
|
1.19
|
1.00
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.15 (0.84–1.56)
|
1.20 (0.91–1.55)
|
0.98 (0.73–1.32)
|
Cleft palate
| | | | | |
N
|
129
|
52
|
15
|
28
|
34
|
P (%)
|
0.033
|
0.029
|
0.027
|
0.034
|
0.045
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
0.94
|
1.18
|
1.58
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
0.94 (0.53–1.68)
|
1.17 (0.74–1.86)
|
1.56 (1.00–2.41)
|
Renal agenesis & dysgenesis
| | | | | |
N
|
76
|
33
|
14
|
13
|
16
|
P (%)
|
0.019
|
0.018
|
0.025
|
0.016
|
0.021
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.38
|
0.87
|
1.17
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.33 (0.71–2.48)
|
0.92 (0.48–1.75)
|
1.27 (0.69–2.33)
|
Obstructive urinary tract defects
| | | | | |
N
|
49
|
19
|
10
|
10
|
10
|
P (%)
|
0.012
|
0.010
|
0.018
|
0.012
|
0.013
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.71
|
1.16
|
1.27
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.65 (0.77–3.56)
|
1.24 (0.57–2.67)
|
1.44 (0.66–3.14)
|
Hypospadias
| | | | | |
N
|
72
|
43
|
8
|
14
|
7
|
P (%)
|
0.018
|
0.024
|
0.014
|
0.017
|
0.009
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
0.61
|
0.72
|
0.39
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
0.59 (0.28–1.26)
|
0.76 (0.41–1.38)
|
0.47 (0.21–1.04)
|
Chromosome anomalies
| | | | | |
N
|
364
|
174
|
72
|
67
|
51
|
P (%)
|
0.092
|
0.096
|
0.129
|
0.081
|
0.068
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.35
|
0.85
|
0.71
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.25 (0.95–1.65)
|
0.93 (0.70–1.24)
|
0.90 (0.66–1.24)
|
Down syndrome
| | | | | |
N
|
166
|
73
|
36
|
30
|
27
|
P (%)
|
0.042
|
0.040
|
0.064
|
0.036
|
0.036
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.60
|
0.90
|
0.89
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.48 (0.99–2.21)
|
1.00 (0.65–1.54)
|
1.17 (0.74–1.83)
|
Trisomy 13
| | | | | |
N
|
14
|
4
|
2
|
6
|
2
|
P (%)
|
0.004
|
0.002
|
0.004
|
0.007
|
0.003
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.63
|
3.30
|
1.21
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.56 (0.28–8.55)
|
3.36 (0.94–12.0)
|
1.12 (0.20–6.29)
|
Trisomy 18
| | | | | |
N
|
54
|
23
|
12
|
13
|
6
|
P (%)
|
0.014
|
0.013
|
0.021
|
0.016
|
0.008
|
OR
| |
1.00
|
1.70
|
1.24
|
0.63
|
aOR (95% CI)
| |
1.00
|
1.64 (0.81–3.30)
|
1.31 (0.66–2.59)
|
0.81 (0.33–2.02)
|
- *cOR: crude odds ratio; aOR: adjusted odds ratio. Logistic regression analysis adjusting for maternal age, plurality, and population density.*Estimates not given for the following rare outcomes: spinal bifida (n = 14) microcephalus (n = 9); endocardial cushion defects (n = 7); transposition of great vessels (n = 12); choanal atresia (n = 2); dysplasia of lung (n = 9); congenital cystic kidney (n = 24).