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Table 5 Prevalences and prevalence odds ratios of the most common birth defects according to exposure to trihalomethanes in Taiwan 2001–2003.

From: Water disinfection by-products and the risk of specific birth defects: a population-based cross-sectional study in Taiwan

Outcomes

 

TTHM

TTHM

TTHM

TTHM

  

0–4 μg/L

5–9 μg/L

10–19 μg/L

20+ μg/L

  

Reference

Low

Medium

High

Any birth defect

     

   N

2,148

978

368

421

381

   P (%)

0.540

0.540

0.660

0.510

0.510

   OR

 

1.00

1.23

0.95

0.94

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.21 (1.07–1.36)

0.97 (0.86–1.08)

1.00 (0.89–1.13)

Anencephalus

     

   N

43

19

9

2

13

   P (%)

0.011

0.010

0.016

0.002

0.017

   OR

 

1.00

1.54

0.23

1.65

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.59 (0.72–3.52)

0.23 (0.05–1.01)

1.96 (0.94–4.07)

Hydrocephalus

     

   N

118

58

24

19

17

   P (%)

0.030

0.032

0.043

0.023

0.023

   OR

 

1.00

1.35

0.72

0.71

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.36 (0.85–2.20)

0.71 (0.42–1.20)

0.74 (0.43–1.28)

Ventricular septal defects

     

   N

59

27

6

8

18

   P (%)

0.015

0.015

0.011

0.010

0.024

   OR

 

1.00

0.72

0.65

1.61

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

0.74 (0.31–1.80)

0.65 (0.29–1.43)

1.81 (0.98–3.35)

Atrial septal defects

     

   N

19

8

5

2

4

   P (%)

0.005

0.004

0.009

0.002

0.005

   OR

 

1.00

2.03

0.55

1.21

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

2.15 (0.70–6.60)

0.53 (0.11–2.49)

1.33 (0.39–4.58)

Tetralogy of Fallot

     

   N

24

13

6

3

2

   P (%)

0.006

0.007

0.011

0.004

0.003

   OR

 

1.00

1.50

0.51

0.37

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.60 (0.61–4.23)

0.46 (0.13–1.61)

0.32 (0.07–1.47)

Cleft lip with/without palate

     

   N

358

155

55

84

64

   P (%)

0.090

0.085

0.098

0.101

0.085

   OR

 

1.00

1.15

1.19

1.00

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.15 (0.84–1.56)

1.20 (0.91–1.55)

0.98 (0.73–1.32)

Cleft palate

     

   N

129

52

15

28

34

   P (%)

0.033

0.029

0.027

0.034

0.045

   OR

 

1.00

0.94

1.18

1.58

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

0.94 (0.53–1.68)

1.17 (0.74–1.86)

1.56 (1.00–2.41)

Renal agenesis & dysgenesis

     

   N

76

33

14

13

16

   P (%)

0.019

0.018

0.025

0.016

0.021

   OR

 

1.00

1.38

0.87

1.17

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.33 (0.71–2.48)

0.92 (0.48–1.75)

1.27 (0.69–2.33)

Obstructive urinary tract defects

     

   N

49

19

10

10

10

   P (%)

0.012

0.010

0.018

0.012

0.013

   OR

 

1.00

1.71

1.16

1.27

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.65 (0.77–3.56)

1.24 (0.57–2.67)

1.44 (0.66–3.14)

Hypospadias

     

   N

72

43

8

14

7

   P (%)

0.018

0.024

0.014

0.017

0.009

   OR

 

1.00

0.61

0.72

0.39

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

0.59 (0.28–1.26)

0.76 (0.41–1.38)

0.47 (0.21–1.04)

Chromosome anomalies

     

   N

364

174

72

67

51

   P (%)

0.092

0.096

0.129

0.081

0.068

   OR

 

1.00

1.35

0.85

0.71

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.25 (0.95–1.65)

0.93 (0.70–1.24)

0.90 (0.66–1.24)

Down syndrome

     

   N

166

73

36

30

27

   P (%)

0.042

0.040

0.064

0.036

0.036

   OR

 

1.00

1.60

0.90

0.89

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.48 (0.99–2.21)

1.00 (0.65–1.54)

1.17 (0.74–1.83)

Trisomy 13

     

   N

14

4

2

6

2

   P (%)

0.004

0.002

0.004

0.007

0.003

   OR

 

1.00

1.63

3.30

1.21

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.56 (0.28–8.55)

3.36 (0.94–12.0)

1.12 (0.20–6.29)

Trisomy 18

     

   N

54

23

12

13

6

   P (%)

0.014

0.013

0.021

0.016

0.008

   OR

 

1.00

1.70

1.24

0.63

   aOR (95% CI)

 

1.00

1.64 (0.81–3.30)

1.31 (0.66–2.59)

0.81 (0.33–2.02)

  1. *cOR: crude odds ratio; aOR: adjusted odds ratio. Logistic regression analysis adjusting for maternal age, plurality, and population density.*Estimates not given for the following rare outcomes: spinal bifida (n = 14) microcephalus (n = 9); endocardial cushion defects (n = 7); transposition of great vessels (n = 12); choanal atresia (n = 2); dysplasia of lung (n = 9); congenital cystic kidney (n = 24).