Table 1 Blood Lead Levels Observed Following Shooting Firearms at Shooting ranges

Arsenal Firing Range Workers

37.2

11.7

22–59.6

Taiwan

10

Chau et al. (1995) [80]

Arsenal Other Workers

13.3

5.6

98

Firing Range and Gun Store Employees

19.9–40.7

California, USA

6

CDC (2014) [81]

Firearms instructor & range cleaning and maintenance

88

New York, USA

1

Fisher-Fischbein et al. (1987) [82]

Firearm Instructors Before Indoor Training: 4.3%

<20

New York, USA

1

Fischbein et al. (1979) [36]

Firearm Instructors Before Indoor Training: 82.6%

20–39

19

Firearm Instructors Before Indoor Training: 8.7%

40–59

2

Firearm Instructors Before Indoor Training: 4.3%

>60

1

Firearm Instructors After Indoor Training: 4.3%

<20

1

Firearm Instructors After Indoor Training: 52.2%

20–39

12

Firearm Instructors After Indoor Training: 34.8%

40–59

8

Firearm Instructors After Indoor Training: 8.7%

>60

2

Firearms Instructors and Officers: 42%

<40

New York, USA

19

Fischbein (1992) [83]

Firearms Instructors and Officers: 34%

40–60

15

Firearms Instructors and Officers: 24%

>60

11

Firearm Instructors

125

15

USA

3

Landrigan et al. (1975) [84]

Male Police Officers

5

1–18.2

Sweden

75

Löfstedt et al. (1999) [85]

Female Police Officers

3.7

3

Full Time Employee

77

Colorado, USA

1

Novotny et al. (1987) [86]

Full Time Employee

59

1

Full Time Employee

49

1

Part Time Employee

41

1

Shooting range supervisor

5.8

1.6

2.1–17.3

Republic of Korea

35

Park et al. (2016) [87]

Professional shooter

11.6

1.9

3.0–34.3

24

Shooting range manager

9.5

2.2

2.0–64.0

61

All job types

8.6

2.1

2.0–64.0

120

Firing Range Instructors

5.5

0.6

4.2–6.7

Sao Paulo, Brazil

20

Rocha et al. (2014) [35]

Cadets - Before Training

3.3

0.15

3.0–3.6

21

Cadets - After Training

18.2

1.5

16–21

21

Instructor 1 Before Training

3.6

1

Instructor 1 After Training

22.1

1

Instructor 2 Before Training

7.7

1

Instructor 2 After Training

18.3

1

Instructors

19

7

Amman, Jordan

31

Abudhaise et al. (1996) [88]

Trainees

22.9

4.6

54

Controls

2.1

1.4

unknown

Police Small Arms Instructors

43.5

6.2

33.1–49.7

England

7

Smith (1976) [89]

US Coastguard Firearm Instructors - Pre BLL

2.4

1.6

0.9–5.6

Washington, USA

9

Torres (2014) [90]

US Coastguard Firearm Instructors - Post BLL

2.3

1.2

0.9–4.6

9

US Coastguard Firearm Instructors - Pre-Post BLL

2.4

1.4

0.9–5.1

9

Police Trainees: Before Training - (1/29/87)

6.0 (6.4*)

Colorado, USA

17

Valway et al. (1989) [45]

Police Trainees: Training - (3/3/87)

51.1 (51.6*)

17

Police Trainees: Training - (3/31/87)

44.3 (43.1*)

17

Police Trainees: Training - (5/3/87)

39.5 (40.0*)

17

Israeli Defence Soldiers Baseline

10.3

2.3

Israel

29

Vivante et al. (2008) [37]

Israeli Defence Soldiers Postexposure

18.8

3.6

29

Indoor Range Instructors

8.5

7.6

Italy

unknown

Di Lorenzo et al. (2006) [91]

FBI Instructors 1989

14.6

9–21

Virginia, USA

7

CDC (1996) [65]

FBI Instructors 1990

13.7

6–27

7

FBI Instructors 1991

7.6

<4–12

14

FBI Range Techs 1989

16.2

10–24

5

FBI Range Techs 1990

10.4

6–14

5

FBI Range Techs 1991

13.6

8–28

5

US Special Operations Forces - Year 2000

13.90

USA

255

Mancuso et al. (2008) [92]

US Special Operations Forces - Year 2005

6.80

Adult Target Shooters - Occupational - 21.6%

<25

New York, USA

26

Gelberg and DePersis (2009) [93]

Adult Target Shooters - Occupational - 50.8%

25–39

61

Adult Target Shooters - Occupational - 25%

40–59

30

Adult Target Shooters - Occupational - 2.5%

60+

3

Range Instructors

6.7

5.3

Italy

unknown

Di Lorenzo et al. (2006) [91]

Firing Range Instructors Before Training

41

10

28–66

California, USA

7

Goldberg et al. (1991) [38]

Firing Range Instructors After Training

45

14

28–70

7

Firing Range Instructors 6 Months After Training

31

5

28–38

7

Soldiers Before Basic Training

<0.29

Israel

22

Greenberg et al. (2016) [94]

Soldiers After Basic Training

1.17

1.73

22

Soldiers After Advanced Training

3.92

1.99

22

Body guards

8.10

2.70

3.0–14.4

Mexico

26

Madrid et al. (2016) [41]

Instructors

7.60

1.40

6.6–8.6

2

Shooting Range Caretakers

40.65

15.63

29.6–51.7

2

Administrative

4.20

1.20

2.7–6.5

9

Security

4.90

1.20

3.0–7.3

9

Services

6.50

3.60

3.1–14.2

10

Elite Group

6.40

2.60

4.2–11.4

6

All Categories

7.60

6.80

2.7–51.7

64

Howitzer Operators - Baseline

5.5

4.33–6.73

Oklahoma, USA

20

Smart et al. (1994) [40]

Howitzer Operators - After 3rd Exercise

20.1

17.94–22.44

20

Howitzer Operators - 8 Weeks After Exposure

11.9

9.92–14.02

12

Shooting Instructor #1 Non-Jacketed bullets

24.02

Virginia, USA

1

Tripathi et al. (1991) [46]

Shooting Instructor #1 Copper Jacketed Bullets

21.95

1

Shooting Instructor #2 Non-Jacketed bullets

14.08

1

Shooting Instructor #2 Copper Jacketed Bullets

13.04

1

Outdoor Firing Range Police Cadets: Baseline - Day 0

6

1.1

5–8

Virginia, USA

7

Tripathi et al. (1989) [9]

Outdoor Firing Range Police Cadets: Day 1

6

1.0

5–8

7

Outdoor Firing Range Police Cadets: Day 2

11

2.1

7–14

7

Outdoor Firing Range Police Cadets: Day 5

15

5.4

9–26

7

Outdoor Firing Range Police Cadets: Day 69

9

2.8

6–14

7

High School Shooting Coach

44

Alaska, USA

1

CDC (2005) [56]

Firing Range A (School Range) - Students Aged 15–17 years

24.3

21.0–31.0

7

Firing Range B (Commercial) - Students Aged 13–16 years

2.1

8

Firing Range C (Volunteer Run) - Students Aged 15–19 years

18.5

5–37

24

Firing Range D (School Range) - Students Aged 14–17 years

8.9

3.0–14.0

7

Firing Range E (Volunteer Run) - Students Aged 7–17 years

7.6

2–13

20

Shooter

9.2*

2.7–52.1

Germany

129

Demmeler et al. (2009) [44]

Shooter: Q1 200 rounds/month

8.7*

2.8–31.4

27

Shooter: Q2 200–399 rounds/month

9*

2.7–31.5

28

Shooter: Q3 400–680 rounds/month

11.8*

2.9–37.5

29

Shooter: Q4 > 680 rounds/month

13.8*

3.7–52.1

23

Airguns

3.3*

1.8–12.7

20

Airguns and .22 caliber

8.7*

1.4–17.2

15

.22 lr bore & large caliber

10.7*

2.7–37.5

51

Large caliber handgun

10*

2.8–32.6

32

IPSC (International Practical Shooting Federation)

19.2*

3.2–52.1

11

<25

New York, USA

2

Gelberg and DePersis (2009) [93]

25–39

92

40–59

27

60+

8

Small Bore Rifle Shooter - End of Indoor Season

54.65

New Zealand

52

George et al. (1993) [39]

Small Bore Rifle Shooter - Preseason Following Year

33.13

37

Shooting Range #2

10.5

7

South Africa

30

Mathee et al. (2017) [15]

Shooting Range #3

16.1

9.8

17

Shooting Range #4

19.2

16.3

14

Child (Age 1 year) - “index case”

46

USA

1

Moore (1995) [95]

Mother - (Age 25 years)

11

1

Father - (Age 25 years)

15

1

Sibling - (Age 4)

14

1

Sibling - (Age 2)

19

1

Cousin - (Age 6)

28

1

Cousin - (Age 8)

31

1

Aunt - (Age 37)

30

1

Child (Age 1 year.) “index case”: 3 Months After Intervention

19

1

Mother - (Age 25 years): 3 Months After Intervention

8

1

Father - (Age 25 years): 3 Months After Intervention

Not Measured

1

Sibling - (Age 4): 3 Months After Intervention

11

1

Sibling - (Age 2): 3 Months After Intervention

12

1

Cousin- (Age 6): 3 Months After Intervention

13

1

Cousin - (Age 8): 3 Months After Intervention

13

1

Aunt - (Age 37): 3 Months After Intervention

13

1

Indoor Shooting Range Employee Spouse

6

Colorado, USA

1

Novotny et al. (1987) [86]

Indoor Shooting Range Employee Spouse

11

1

Indoor Shooting Range Employee Spouse

6

1

Recreational Shooters

29*

24–45

Germany

7

Ochsmann et al. (2009) [6]

Competitive Marksmen - Adolescents Aged 14–16 years

21.3

18–28

Massachusetts, USA

4

Shannon (1999) [57]

Shooters before indoor shooting season

10.6*

3.2–17.6

Sweden

22

Svensson et al. (1992) [96]

Shooters after indoor shooting season

13.8*

6.9–28.8

22

Airgun Shooters before indoor shooting season

9.1*

4.7–17.9

21

Airgun Shooters after indoor shooting season

8.4*

2.0–22.2

21

Archers before shooting season

6.1*

2.7–9.2

13

Archers after shooting season

5.6*

3.1–8.7

13

Shooter: shot 600 rounds 3 times per week for past 4 months

43.5

United Kingdom

1

White (1996) [97]

Shooter

45

6.3

35–47

Connecticut, USA

6

Cook et al. (2015) [98]

Irregular Frequency Indoor and Outdoor Shooter

6.7

Australia

1

Gulson et al. (2002) [99]

Archers who also shot guns

7.8

10.26

South Africa

15

Mathee et al. (2017) [15]

Gun shooters only (excluding archers and employees)

12.13

10.18

62

Gun shooters who also work at the shooting range

16.3

7.83

8

All gun shooters (including archers and employees)

11.9

10.15

85

Less than monthly

8.4

5.5

23

> monthly, but less than weekly

11.8

8.7

35

> weekly, but < 3 times per week

14.3

15.2

21

>3 times per week

12.5

9.7

7

Pistol Sport Shooters

10.76

8.28

Helsinki, Finland

20

Asa-Mäkitaipale et al. (2009) [42]

Archery Range

4.5

2.7

South Africa

14

Mathee et al. (2017) [15]

Shooting Range #1

7

4.3

12

Practised archery only

3.3

2.25

31