Fig. 1

Trends in urine GLY levels with key maternal characteristics and behavior: (a) Caffeine Intake, (b) Area of Residence, (c) Pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index (BMI), (d) Organic Food Consumption, and (e) Stress During Pregnancy. Legend: For group comparison, the p values were calculated using Fisher’s exact tests at significance level of 0.05. (a) The number of subjects with caffeine intake: < 8 oz. = 16, 8-24 oz. = 38, and > 24 oz. = 8; (b) number of subjects that lived in the residential area: rural = 14, suburban = 50, and urban = 7; (c) number of subjects with pre-pregnancy BMI: < 25 = 33, 25–30 = 20, and > 30 = 18; (d) number of subjects with frequency of organic food consumption: never = 10, rarely = 29, and frequently = 32; and (e) number of subjects with the degree of stress during pregnancy: not = 27, somewhat = 37, and very stressed = 6