Table 1 Characteristics of selected participants (n = 1057)
Characteristic | N (%) | GA (SD) in week | P-value | GWG (SD) in g/week | P-value | BW (SD) in kg | p-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maternal age (y) | |||||||
 18–20 | 415 (39.3) | 38.06 (1.77) | 0.298 | 0.38 (0.13) | < 0.001 | 2833 (359) | 0.662 |
 21–25 | 393 (37.2) | 37.89 (1.83) |  | 0.35 (0.12) |  | 2858 (425) |  |
 26–41 | 249 (23.6) | 38.08 (1.84) |  | 0.33 (0.12) |  | 2840 (409) |  |
BMI at enrollment (kg/m2) | |||||||
 < 18.5 | 296 (28.0) | 37.97 (1.77) | 0.309 | 0.38 (0.13) | < 0.001 | 2792 (402) | < 0.001 |
 18.5–25 | 663 (62.7) | 37.97 (1.86) |  | 0.36 (0.13) |  | 2841 (379) |  |
 25–30 | 88 (8.3) | 38.35 (1.55) |  | 0.31 (0.09) |  | 3018 (463) |  |
 > 30 | 10 (0.9) | 37.90 (1.52) |  | 0.34 (0.10) |  | 2997 (284) |  |
Infant sex | |||||||
 Male | 536 (50.7) | 38.02 (1.81) | 0.773 | 0.35 (0.12) | 0.214 | 2884 (370) | 0.001 |
 Female | 521 (49.3) | 37.99 (1.81) |  | 0.36 (0.13) |  | 2805 (417) |  |
Birth type | |||||||
 Vaginal | 692 (65.5) | 37.78 (1.90) | < 0.001 | 0.35 (0.13) | 0.001 | 2783 (401) | < 0.001 |
 Cesarean | 365 (34.5) | 38.42 (1.55) |  | 0.37 (0.12) |  | 2959 (362) |  |
Birth location | |||||||
 Home | 581 (55.0) | 37.75 (1.94) | < 0.001 | 0.35 (0.12) | 0.002 | 2749 (389) | < 0.001 |
 Clinic | 69 (6.5) | 37.81 (1.90) |  | 0.35 (0.10) |  | 2996 (360) |  |
 Hospital | 407 (38.5) | 38.40 (1.51) |  | 0.37 (0.13) |  | 2964 (377) |  |
Drinking water arsenic (μg/L) | |||||||
 < 50 | 833 (78.8) | 38.24 (1.73) | < 0.001 | 0.36 (0.13) | < 0.001 | 2857 (376) | 0.031 |
 ≥ 50 | 224 (21.2) | 37.12 (1.82) |  | 0.32 (0.11) |  | 2793 (463) |  |
Toenail arsenic (μg/g) | |||||||
 0.04–0.64 | 270 (25.5) | 38.55 (1.57) | < 0.001 | 0.38 (0.14) | 0.002 | 2881 (319) | 0.176 |
 0.65–1.20 | 259 (24.5) | 37.97 (1.77) |  | 0.36 (0.12) |  | 2847 (375) |  |
 1.21–2.95 | 263 (24.9) | 37.82 (1.92) |  | 0.35 (0.12) |  | 2805 (450) |  |
 2.96–46.58 | 265 (25.1) | 37.66 (1.85) |  | 0.34 (0.12) |  | 2842 (428) |  |
Secondhand tobacco smoke | |||||||
 No | 613 (58.0) | 38.05 (1.81) | 0.298 | 0.36 (0.13) | 0.010 | 2874 (393) | 0.003 |
 Yes | 444 (42.0) | 37.93 (1.82) |  | 0.35 (0.12) |  | 3801 (398) |  |
Betel nut chewing | |||||||
 No | 1046 (99.0) | 38.00 (1.81) | 0.244 | 0.36 (0.12) | 0.642 | 2845 (397) | 0.254 |
 Yes | 11 (1.0) | 38.64 (1.75) |  | 0.37 (0.13) |  | 2708 (321) |  |
Maternal education | |||||||
 Secondary | 562 (53.2) | 37.84 (1.79) | < 0.001 | 0.36 (0.12) | 0.025 | 2729 (381) | 0.001 |
 Primary | 342 (32.4) | 38.37 (1.73) |  | 0.36 (0.13) |  | 2862 (380) |  |
 Illiterate | 153 (14.5) | 37.78 (1.92) |  | 0.34 (0.12) |  | 2864 (405) |  |
Household monthly income (USD) | |||||||
 < 36 | 180 (17.0) | 37.69 (1.87) | < 0.001 | 0.37 (0.13) | < 0.001 | 2804 (402) | 0.001 |
 37–49 | 287 (27.2) | 37.78 (1.89) |  | 0.35 (0.11) |  | 2837 (393) |  |
 50–61 | 308 (29.1) | 38.12 (1.77) |  | 0.36 (0.13) |  | 2807 (423) |  |
 62–74 | 157 (14.9) | 38.23 (1.72) |  | 0.37 (0.13) |  | 2877 (358) |  |
 > 75 | 125 (11.8) | 38.39 (1.60) |  | 0.40 (0.13) |  | 2962 (354) |  |
Pregnancy activity level | |||||||
 Low | 55 (5.2) | 37.76 (2.08) | 0.489 | 0.36 (0.11) | 0.960 | 2764 (581) | 0.005 |
 Medium | 950 (89.9) | 38.02 (1.78) |  | 0.36 (0.13) |  | 2862 (382) |  |
 High | 32 (3.0) | 37.81 (2.12) |  | 0.36 (0.12) |  | 2718 (399) |  |
Hours spent cooking over open fire during pregnancy (h/day) | |||||||
 0–2 | 79 (7.5) | 38.65 (1.64) | 0.002 | 0.40 (0.13) | 0.017 | 2894 (310) | 0.281 |
 2–4 | 531 (50.2) | 37.88 (1.88) |  | 0.35 (0.12) |  | 2827 (414) |  |
 4–6 | 447 (42.3) | 38.04 (1.73) |  | 0.36 (0.12) |  | 2854 (388) |  |