Skip to main content

Table 3 Pesticide Exposures and Risk for Holoprosencephaly

From: Prenatal exposure to pesticides and risk for holoprosencephaly: a case-control study

Pesticide Exposure

Cases (%)

Controls (%)

OR (95%CI)

aOR (95%CI)a

Personal insect repellentsb

 3 months before pregnancy

  No

22 (50.8)

30 (68.2)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

32 (49.2)

14 (31.8)

2.08 (0.95, 4.71)

2.76 (0.88, 9.16)

   Contained DEET

  No

1 (4.8)

4 (33.3)

Ref

NC

  Yes

15 (71.4)

7 (58.3)

8.58 (1.03, 185.33)

NC

  Used repellent with and without DEET

5 (23.8)

1 (8.3)

20.0 (1.32, 962.18)

NC

 During pregnancy

  No

32 (50.8)

30 (65.2)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

31 (49.2)

16 (34.8)

1.82 (0.84, 4.03)

2.89 (0.96, 9.50)

   Entire pregnancy

  No

54 (90.0)

44 (95.7)

Ref

NC

  Yes

6 (10.0)

2 (4.3)

2.44 (0.53, 17.25)

NC

   First trimester

  No

50 (83.3)

42 (91.3)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

10 (16.7)

4 (8.7)

2.10 (0.65, 8.10)

1.46 (0.25, 7.76)

   Second trimester

  No

47 (78.3)

41 (89.1)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

13 (21.7)

5 (10.9)

2.67 (0.78, 7.56)

4.18 (1.06, 18.95)

   Third trimester

  No

49 (81.7)

39 (84.8)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

11 (18.3)

7 (15.2)

1.25 (0.45, 3.68)

2.54 (0.70, 9.72)

   Contained DEET

  No

4 (20.0)

5 (41.7)

Ref

NC

  Yes

11 (55.0)

5 (41.7)

2.75 (0.52, 16.04)

NC

  Used repellent with and without DEET

5 (25.0)

2 (16.7)

3.13 (0.42, 31.44)

NC

Weed killers outside homeb

 3 months before pregnancy

  No

51 (60.7)

39 (73.6)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

33 (29.3)

14 (26.4)

1.80 (0.86, 3.90)

1.81 (0.65, 5.10)

     During pregnancy

    

  No

55 (64.7)

36 (69.2)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

30 (35.3)

16 (30.8)

1.23 (0.59, 2.60)

1.66 (0.60, 4.67)

Weed killers inside homeb

 3 months before pregnancy

  No

80 (95.2)

51 (96.2)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

4 (4.8)

2 (3.8)

1.28 (0.24, 9.44)

0.76 (0.03, 8.86)

 During pregnancy

    

  No

77 (90.6)

51 (98.1)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

8 (9.4)

1 (1.9)

5.29 (0.93, 99.80)

5.15 (0.65, 107.01)

Treatments for lice and scabiesb,c

  No

83 (96.5)

50 (98.0)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

3 (3.5)

1 (2.0)

1.81 (0.22, 37.08)

1.62 (0.06, 42.44)

Pets inside homec

  No

24 (28.2)

20 (37.0)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

61 (71.8)

34 (63.0)

1.50 (0.72, 3.09)

1.71 (0.62, 4.97)

Type

 Dog

  No

38 (44.7)

27 (50.0)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

47 (55.3)

27 (50.0)

1.24 (0.62, 2.46)

1.15 (0.43, 3.06)

 Cat

  No

58 (68.2)

38 (70.4)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

27 (31.8)

16 (29.6)

1.11 (0.53, 2.35)

1.33 (0.45, 3.94)

 Small mammalc

  No

80 (94.1)

51 (94.4)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

5 (5.9)

3 (5.6)

1.06 (0.25, 5.36)

0.31 (0.01, 2.89)

 Bird

  No

84 (98.8)

54 (1.00)

NC

NC

  Yes

1 (1.2)

0 (0.0)

NC

NC

 Fish or reptile

  No

79 (92.9)

50 (92.6)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

6 (7.1)

4 (7.4)

0.95 (0.26, 3.87)

0.88 (0.11, 4.96)

 Other

  No

84 (98.8)

53 (98.1)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

1 (1.2)

1 (1.9)

0.63 (0.02, 16.18)

1.90 (0.07, 50.18)

Pesticides for petsb,c,e

  No

49 (64.5)

42 (79.2)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

27 (35.5)

11 (20.8)

2.10 (0.95, 4.89)

3.13 (0.69, 6.75)

 3 months before pregnancy

  No

55 (75.3)

43 (82.7)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

18 (24.7)

9 (17.3)

1.56 (0.65, 3.97)

1.44 (0.38, 5.39)

 During pregnancy

  No

52 (70.3)

45 (86.5)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

22 (29.7)

7 (13.5)

2.72 (1.11, 7.42)

3.84 (1.04, 16.32)

 First trimester

    

  No

58 (86.6)

46 (92.0)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

9 (13.4)

4 (8.0)

1.78 (0.54, 6.92)

0.21 (0.009, 1.86)

 Second trimester

  No

58 (86.6)

47 (94.0)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

9 (13.4)

3 (6.0)

1.56 (0.83, 3.38)

1.02 (0.38, 2.61)

 Third trimester

  No

59 (88.1)

47 (94.0)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

8 (11.9)

3 (6.0)

1.29 (0.83, 2.16)

0.89 (0.42, 1.73)

 Personally apply products for pets

  No

59 (80.8)

47 (90.4)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

14 (19.2)

5 (9.6)

2.23 (0.79, 7.31)

1.22 (0.23, 6.05)

Regular encounter with horsec,f

  No

72 (96.0)

45 (97.8)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

3 (4.0)

1 (2.2)

1.88 (0.23, 28.54)

1.80 (0.07, 47.50)

Fly repellents for horses

  No

8 (88.9)

4 (1.00)

Ref

NC

  Yes

1 (11.1)

0 (0.0)

1.58 (0.05, 47.51)

NC

Pest problemsc

  No

51 (63.0)

31 (63.3)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

30 (37.0)

18 (36.7)

1.01 (0.49, 2.13)

0.66 (0.21, 1.98)

 During entire pregnancy

  No

66 (81.5)

42 (87.5)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

15 (18.5)

6 (12.5)

1.59 (0.60, 4.75)

1.47 (0.33, 6.43)

 First trimester

  No

76 (93.8)

45 (93.8)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

5 (6.2)

3 (6.2)

0.99 (0.23, 4.99)

0.15 (0.005, 1.90)

 Second trimester

  No

77 (95.1)

42 (87.5)

Ref

NC

  Yes

4 (4.9)

6 (12.5)

0.36 (0.09, 1.34)

NC

 Third trimester

  No

79 (97.5)

44 (91.7)

Ref

NC

  Yes

2 (2.5)

4 (8.3)

0.28 (0.04, 1.49)

NC

Household pest control productsb,c,g

  No

36 (52.2)

31 (63.3)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

33 (47.8)

18 (36.7)

1.58 (0.75, 3.37)

2.60 (0.84, 8.68)

 3 months before pregnancy

  No

47 (75.8)

37 (77.1)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

15 (24.2)

11 (22.9)

1.07 (0.44, 2.66)

1.99 (0.52, 7.80)

 During pregnancy

  No

46 (71.9)

33 (71.7)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

18 (28.1)

13 (28.2)

0.99 (0.43, 2.34)

2.16 (0.62, 7.78)

 First trimester

  No

53 (82.8)

38 (82.6)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

11 (17.2)

8 (17.4)

0.99 (0.36, 2.77)

2.06 (0.49, 8.43)

 Second trimester

  No

53 (82.8)

36 (78.3)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

11 (17.2)

10 (21.7)

0.86 (0.53, 1.40)

1.27 (0.63, 2.51)

 Third trimester

  No

52 (81.2)

38 (82.6)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

12 (18.8)

8 (17.4)

1.03 (0.74, 1.45)

1.28 (0.76, 2.11)

Occupational exposures to pesticides and herbicides

 Maternal: 3 months before pregnancy

  No

53 (86.9)

33 (94.3)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

8 (13.1)

2 (5.7)

2.47 (0.45, 25.27)

1.95 (0.07, 52.19)

 Maternal: during pregnancy

  No

54 (90.0)

31 (91.2)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

6 (10.0)

3 (8.8)

1.15 (0.23, 7.58)

1.15 (0.11, 11.42)

 Paternalc

  No

43 (72.9)

30 (85.7)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

16 (27.1)

5 (14.3)

2.21 (0.68, 8.59)

2.39 (0.34, 20.58)

 Living next to an agricultural fieldc,h

  No

70 (82.4)

47 (87.0)

Ref

Ref

  Yes

15 (17.6)

7 (13)

1.44 (0.50, 4.49)

3.24 (0.94, 12.31)

  1. Note: OR Crude odds ratio, aOR Adjusted odds ratio, CI Confidence Interval, NC Not calculated, DEET N, N-diethyl meta toluamide. Adjusted odds ratios for some variables were not calculated because of low rates of exposure to the potential risk factors and/or low ascertainment that did not permit estimations of the risk parameters
  2. aAll odds ratios are from logistic regression models adjusted for maternal consumption of vitamin or supplement containing folic acid(at least 400 mcg during the 3 months before pregnancy and/or first month of pregnancy), and time since birth to completion of survey (continuous in years)
  3. bUse by mother or anyone in household
  4. cDuring the 3 months before pregnancy and/or during pregnancy
  5. dRabbit, gerbil, hamster, guinea pig, ferret, mouse
  6. eTo control for fleas, ticks or mites
  7. fOwn, lease, train or care for horse regularly (once a week or more) 3 month before pregnancy until birth
  8. gProducts to control for pests or insects such as bugs like ants, wasps or others in or outside the home
  9. hWithin 100 m, e.g. field next door or across the street, during the 3 months before pregnancy or 1st trimester
Back to article page

Environmental Health

ISSN: 1476-069X