Table 2 Physical Hazards and Injuries

Lack of safety in mining processes is the main hazard for the miners’ health [10]. Artisanal and small-scale mines are poorly mechanized and use rudimentary mining methods thereby exposing themselves to a wide variety of occupational hazards. Artisanal and small scale miners lack expertise and competency in conducting workplace risk assessments due to a lack of training and education [11, 12]. This results in a multiplicity of occupational hazards that are not controlled thereby placing the health and safety of miners at risk. Poor mechanization in artisanal and small scale mines is often associated with unsafe working processes. The miners also lack knowledge and competence in the application of the hierarchy of controls leading to unsafe workplaces [13]. Falls from heights, mine collapses and crush injuries are common challenges within this population [10, 14,15,16,17]. Miners are faced with extreme working conditions on a daily basis. The non-ventilated, small, and unsecured tunnels can fully or partly collapse and injure or kill workers. Blasting of tunnels with insecure explosives, or a misapplication of explosives frequently harms miners. Especially open pit mines are unstable and collapse frequently and underground water mining is considered exceptionally hazardous. Miners are often unaware of risks because training and education is absent or insufficient [11]. The risks result in high fatality and injury rates, including “burns, eye injuries, fractures, impalement, and in some instances physical dismemberment” [10].