Outdoor air pollution is associated with mortality and hospital admissions due to respiratory and cardiovascular disease in both short-term and long-term studies [1]. There is a paucity of research on the specific impact of sugar cane burning on health, despite evidence that it is at least as toxic as pollution produced by traffic and more toxic than traffic after repeated exposures [2, 3]. In particular, no published studies have examined the impact of current sugar cane burning practices on the island of Maui in Hawaii.
Sugar plantations were established two centuries ago on the islands of Hawaii. Today, only the island of Maui continues to produce 200,000 tons of cane annually [4]. Controlled, scheduled burns of cane fields occur prior to harvest to reduce the volume of waste material for transport and processing. Cane field fires produce smoke and ash above the Maui central valley resulting in ash fall locally known as “Maui snow”. Burns typically begin in the early morning hours and end before dawn, thereby avoiding peak traffic periods and school or church sessions.
Burning rules are set and monitored by the Hawaii Department of Health (DOH). Burning is prohibited on days when high amounts of volcanic smog (“vog”) occur on Maui, originating from the consistently-active Kilauea Volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii, located 117 miles southeast of Maui. There is a general northeasterly wind direction during days when cane burning is allowed. When vog blows in on weaker southerly winds, it tends to uniformly expose Maui’s entire island population. Therefore, vog could confound clinical/epidemiologic studies of cane burning’s respiratory effects if one used days of no cane burning as controls for days of burning. Additionally, cane cannot be burned during extremely rainy weather, which is associated with cold symptoms, another potential confounder. Therefore, comparisons of burn versus non-burn days on Maui require methods that control for at least these confounders.
The study of sugar cane burning on Maui is a particularly important environmental health issue given the relatively high prevalence of asthma in Hawaii. According to the National Center for Environmental Health, asthma affects 16.9 % of children and 16.1 % of adults in Hawaii, higher than the US prevalence of 12.5 % and 13.3 %, respectively [5, 6]. Asthma exacerbations have continually contributed to increasing emergency department (ED) visits, hospitalizations, and mortality [7]. Hawaii reports approximately 5,000 ED visits and 1,500 hospital admissions annually due to asthma exacerbations [8]. According to the National Institute of Health, environmental factors that may trigger or exacerbate acute respiratory illnesses include viral respiratory infections, environmental allergens, smoking, exercise, occupational chemicals, environmental changes, irritants, emotions, stress, drugs, food, changes in weather, exposure to cold air, and endocrine and comorbid conditions [9]. Cane burning and vog emissions are typical examples of smoke, chemical, and particulates on Maui. Additionally, residents may be exposed to molds and viral infections during extremely wet and rainy weather when cane burning is not permitted.
There are only a few published studies to date that examine the health effects of sugar cane burning and none examining health effects under current DOH burning restrictions in the unique environment of Hawaii. Lehman studied 36 patients who were scheduled for intracutaneous skin testing due to significant chronic allergy problems. When exposed to sugar cane smoke extract, there was a significant increase (P < 0.01) in positive skin reactions in subjects exposed to cane smoke extract as compared to the control group [10]. In Louisiana, there were 6,498 hospital visitations for asthma during a two-year study period with a positive (though not significant) dose–response trend in asthma hospitalization rates during sugar cane burning [11].
Brazilian studies demonstrate an association with adverse health effects. One study analyzed 673 records of children less than thirteen years old and elderly greater than 64 years old and found particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO) markers from cane burning led to respiratory effects [12]. Data analysis showed that the PM10 during the nonburning period was 28.9 ± 12.8 μg/m3 compared to 87.7 ± 57.9 μg/m3 during the burning period. The PM2.5 during the nonburning period was 10.0 ± 4.6 μg/m3 compared to 22.8 ± 14.7 μg/m3 during the burning period. In both the child and elderly group, PM10, PM2.5, and black carbon were significantly associated with respiratory hospital admissions even after adjusting for season and weather. These correlations remained significant even after adjusting for season and weather.
In another ecological time-series study, total suspended particle (TSP) concentrations from cane burning doubled during burn periods with a statistically significant increase in asthma hospital admissions 1–5 days after increasing TSP concentrations [13]. Study authors used a lag structure of 0 to 9 days between burn dates and hospital admissions with adjustments for over-dispersion. During the 493 days of the study, there were a total of 640 asthma hospital admissions; during the burning period (318 days) there were 477 admissions, a rate 50 % higher, and statistically significant, compared to 163 admissions during the non-burning period (175 days).
In a descriptive, cross-sectional study of 1,076 private- and public-schooled children aged 10–14, Riguera found lower asthma symptoms but higher rates of rhinitis in children during times of burning [14]. Through a series of assessments, he found that the prevalence of asthma and rhinitis symptoms was 11 % and 33.2 %, respectively. Rhinitis occurred most frequently from June to October, a period that matches the sugar cane harvest season in Brazil as well as seasonal variations. Additionally, daily prevalence of peak expiratory flow below 20 % of the median of each child’s best measurements was greater in days with higher PM2.5 concentrations. The authors concluded that the prevalence of asthma symptoms was actually below the national Brazilian average (19 %) whereas rhinitis prevalence exceeded the national average (29.6 %) during the study period.
More recently, there is evidence that reduction of pre-harvest sugar cane burning in response to a state law in Brazil requiring the gradual elimination of this practice has been associated with a decrease in hospitalizations due to respiratory disease [15].
In 1972, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) studied cane and leaf burning from Hawaii crops in an incinerating tower for pollutant analysis [16]. Burning of 20 whole cane plots and 19 cane leaf trash samples yielded particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbon emissions all within normal ranges of many other herbaceous types of fuel previously burned within the tower. During whole cane burns, particulate yields averaged 112 lbs/acre of fuel burned (99 % CI with true mean between 92 and 132 lbs/acre), which was determined to not be excessive. The carbon monoxide yield averaged 1,113 lbs/acre (99 % CI with true mean between 843 and 1,383 lbs/acre), and also determined to be a moderate amount emitted, similar to the yield from dry cereal grain straw. Finally, the hydrocarbon yield averaged 152 lbs/acre (99 % CI with true mean of 121 lbs/acre) and authors concluded this also to be within normal emissions. Pollutant yields from leaf trash were a little less than from whole cane; additionally, those fires simulated against the direction of wind flow did not emit any significant difference compared those in the direction of wind flow. However, this marker study does not address all pollutants potentially causing health problems or examine if mixtures of pollutants have a compounding effect. For example, vog is another source of air pollution on Maui and was studied at a clinic downwind from the active volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii [17]. In sampling 1,189 patients, high vog exposure during increased volcanic activity was associated with a six-fold increase in health visits for acute airway problems, cough, headache, and pharyngitis.
Given the link between sugar cane burning and negative respiratory health outcomes in other locations, the high prevalence of asthma in Hawaii, and the complex environment in Hawaii, it is important to study the impact of current sugar burning practices on Maui. Therefore, this study retrospectively examines the relationship between sugar cane burning and acute respiratory illnesses on the island of Maui on burn days while controlling for confounding factors likely to be present on non-burn days.