World Health Organization. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. World Health Organization; 2021. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/345329. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO
Liu J, et al. Disparities in Air Pollution Exposure in the United States by Race/Ethnicity and Income, 1990–2010. Environ Health Perspect. 2021;129:127005.
Hajat A, Hsia C, O’Neill MS. Socioeconomic Disparities and Air Pollution Exposure: A Global Review. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2015;2:440–50.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Tessum C, et al. Inequity in consumption of goods and services adds to racial–ethnic disparities in air pollution exposure. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2019;116:201818859.
Article
Google Scholar
Almetwally AA, Bin-Jumah M, Allam AA. Ambient air pollution and its influence on human health and welfare: an overview. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020;27:24815–30.
Article
Google Scholar
Suades-González E, Gascon M, Guxens M, Sunyer J. Air Pollution and Neuropsychological Development: A Review of the Latest Evidence. Endocrinology. 2015;156:3473–82.
Article
Google Scholar
Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Leray E, Heydarpour P, Torres-Jardón R, Reis J. Air pollution, a rising environmental risk factor for cognition, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration: The clinical impact on children and beyond. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2016;172:69–80.
Article
Google Scholar
Fleming S, et al. Normal ranges of heart rate and respiratory rate in children from birth to 18 years: a systematic review of observational studies. Lancet. 2011;377:1011–8.
Article
Google Scholar
Thompson R, Nelson C. Developmental Science and the Media: Early Brain Development. Am Psychol. 2001;56:5–15.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Loftus CT, et al. Prenatal air pollution and childhood IQ: preliminary evidence of effect modification by folate. Environ Res. 2019;176:108505.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Porta D, et al. Air Pollution and Cognitive Development at Age 7 in a Prospective Italian Birth Cohort. Epidemiol Camb Mass. 2016;27:228–36.
Google Scholar
Peterson BS, et al. Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Air Pollutants (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) on the Development of Brain White Matter, Cognition, and Behavior in Later Childhood. JAMA Psychiat. 2015;72:531–40.
Article
Google Scholar
Guxens M, et al. Air Pollution Exposure During Fetal Life, Brain Morphology, and Cognitive Function in School-Age Children. Biol Psychiatry. 2018;84:295–303.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Rivas I, et al. Association between Early Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Working Memory and Attention. Environ Health Perspect. 2019;127:57002.
Article
Google Scholar
Sentís A, et al. Prenatal and postnatal exposure to NO2 and child attentional function at 4–5years of age. Environ Int. 2017;106:170–7.
Article
Google Scholar
Chiu Y-HM, et al. Prenatal Particulate Air Pollution and Neurodevelopment in Urban Children: Examining Sensitive Windows and Sex-specific Associations. Environ Int. 2016;87:56–65.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Guxens M, et al. Air pollution during pregnancy and childhood cognitive and psychomotor development: six European birth cohorts. Epidemiol Camb Mass. 2014;25:636–47.
Article
Google Scholar
Perera FP, et al. Effect of prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among inner-city children. Environ Health Perspect. 2006;114:1287–92.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Guxens M, et al. Prenatal exposure to residential air pollution and infant mental development: modulation by antioxidants and detoxification factors. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120:144–9.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Peterson BS, et al. Prenatal exposure to air pollution is associated with altered brain structure, function, and metabolism in childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2022;63:1316-31.
Guxens M, et al. Prenatal air pollution exposure and child’s attentional function at 7 years old: exploring windows of susceptibility. Environ Epidemiol. 2019;3:146.
Article
Google Scholar
Liu B, et al. Fetal Exposure to Air Pollution in Late Pregnancy Significantly Increases ADHD-Risk Behavior in Early Childhood. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19:10482.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Kostović I, Judaš M, Petanjek Z, Šimić G. Ontogenesis of goal-directed behavior: anatomo-functional considerations. Int J Psychophysiol. 1995;19:85–102.
Article
Google Scholar
Borsani E, Della Vedova AM, Rezzani R, Rodella LF, Cristini C. Correlation between human nervous system development and acquisition of fetal skills: An overview. Brain Dev. 2019;41:225–33.
Article
Google Scholar
Konkel L. The Brain before Birth: Using fMRI to Explore the Secrets of Fetal Neurodevelopment. Environ Health Perspect. 2018;126:112001.
Stiles J, Jernigan TL. The Basics of Brain Development. Neuropsychol Rev. 2010;20:327–48.
Article
Google Scholar
Meyer U, Yee BK, Feldon J. The Neurodevelopmental Impact of Prenatal Infections at Different Times of Pregnancy: The Earlier the Worse? Neuroscientist. 2007;13:241–56.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Boulanger-Bertolus J, Pancaro C, Mashour GA. Increasing Role of Maternal Immune Activation in Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Front Behav Neurosci. 2018;12:230.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Roy P. Martin & Stefan C. Dombrowski. Prenatal Exposures: Psychological and Educational Consequences for Children. (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 2008).
Andescavage NN, et al. Complex Trajectories of Brain Development in the Healthy Human Fetus. Cereb Cortex. 2017;27:5274–83.
Google Scholar
Alderete TL, et al. Early life gut microbiota is associated with rapid infant growth in Hispanics from Southern California. Gut Microbes. 2021;13:1961203.
Article
Google Scholar
Alderete TL, et al. Added sugar and sugar-sweetened beverages are associated with increased postpartum weight gain and soluble fiber intake is associated with postpartum weight loss in Hispanic women from Southern California. Am J Clin Nutr. 2020;112:519–26.
Article
Google Scholar
Berger PK, et al. Maternal blood pressure mediates the association between maternal obesity and infant weight gain in early postpartum. Pediatr Obes. 2019;14:e12560.
Article
Google Scholar
Patterson WB, et al. Prenatal exposure to ambient air pollutants and early infant growth and adiposity in the Southern California Mother’s Milk Study. Environ Health. 2021;20:67.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Wild LE, et al. Specific amino acids but not total protein attenuate postpartum weight gain among Hispanic women from Southern California. Food Sci Nutr. 2021;9:1842–50.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Wild LE, et al. Risk of Micronutrient Inadequacy among Hispanic, Lactating Mothers: Preliminary Evidence from the Southern California Mother’s Milk Study. Nutrients. 2021;13:3252.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Hollingshead A. Four-factor Index of Social Status. N. Hav: Yale Univ; 1975.
Google Scholar
Adams J, Weakliem D, August B. Hollingshead’s ‘Four Factor Index of Social Status’: From Unpublished Paper to Citation Classic. Yale J Sociol. 2011;8:11–9.
Google Scholar
Eckel SP, et al. Air pollution affects lung cancer survival. Thorax. 2016;71:891–8.
Article
Google Scholar
Çelik P, AyranciSucakli I, Yakut H I. Which Bayley-III cut-off values should be used in different developmental levels? Turk. J Med Sci. 2020;50:764–70.
Google Scholar
Johnson S, Moore T, Marlow N. Using the Bayley-III to assess neurodevelopmental delay: which cut-off should be used? Pediatr Res. 2014;75:670–4.
Article
Google Scholar
Bové H, et al. Ambient black carbon particles reach the fetal side of human placenta. Nat Commun. 2019;10:3866.
Article
Google Scholar
Valentino SA, et al. Maternal exposure to diluted diesel engine exhaust alters placental function and induces intergenerational effects in rabbits. Part Fibre Toxicol. 2016;13:39.
Article
Google Scholar
Block, M. L. et al. Nanometer size diesel exhaust particles are selectively toxic to dopaminergic neurons: the role of microglia, phagocytosis, and NADPH oxidase. FASEB J. Off. Publ. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 18, 1618–1620 (2004).
Paolicelli RC, et al. Synaptic Pruning by Microglia Is Necessary for Normal Brain Development. Science. 2011;333:1456–8.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Mottahedin A, et al. Effect of Neuroinflammation on Synaptic Organization and Function in the Developing Brain: Implications for Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Front Cell Neurosci. 2017;11:190.
Article
Google Scholar
Block ML, Calderón-Garcidueñas L. Air Pollution: Mechanisms of Neuroinflammation & CNS Disease. Trends Neurosci. 2009;32:506–16.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Torres-Jardón R, Kulesza RJ, Park S-B, D’Angiulli A. Air pollution and detrimental effects on children’s brain. The need for a multidisciplinary approach to the issue complexity and challenges. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014;8:613.
Brockmeyer S, D’Angiulli A. How air pollution alters brain development: the role of neuroinflammation. Transl Neurosci. 2016;7:24–30.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Calderón-Garcidueñas L, et al. Long-term air pollution exposure is associated with neuroinflammation, an altered innate immune response, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, ultrafine particulate deposition, and accumulation of amyloid beta-42 and alpha-synuclein in children and young adults. Toxicol Pathol. 2008;36:289–310.
Article
Google Scholar
Zaretsky MV, Alexander JM, Byrd W, Bawdon RE. Transfer of inflammatory cytokines across the placenta. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103:546–50.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Aaltonen R, Heikkinen T, Hakala K, Laine K, Alanen A. Transfer of proinflammatory cytokines across term placenta. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:802–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Dahlgren J, Samuelsson A-M, Jansson T, Holmäng A. Interleukin-6 in the Maternal Circulation Reaches the Rat Fetus in Mid-gestation. Pediatr Res. 2006;60:147–51.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Chen HL, et al. Tumor necrosis factor alpha mRNA and protein are present in human placental and uterine cells at early and late stages of gestation. Am J Pathol. 1991;139:327–35.
CAS
Google Scholar
Hu X-L, Yang Y, Hunt JS. Differential distribution of interleukin-1α and interleukin-1β proteins in human placentas. J Reprod Immunol. 1992;22:257–68.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Kameda T, et al. Production of interleukin-6 by normal human trophoblast. Placenta. 1990;11:205–13.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Benyo DF, Miles TM, Conrad KP. Hypoxia stimulates cytokine production by villous explants from the human placenta. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:1582–8.
CAS
Google Scholar
Han VX, et al. Maternal acute and chronic inflammation in pregnancy is associated with common neurodevelopmental disorders: a systematic review. Transl Psychiatry. 2021;11:1–12.
Article
Google Scholar
Allswede DM, Yolken RH, Buka SL, Cannon TD. Cytokine concentrations throughout pregnancy and risk for psychosis in adult offspring: a longitudinal case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7:254–61.
Article
Google Scholar
Knuesel I, et al. Maternal immune activation and abnormal brain development across CNS disorders. Nat Rev Neurol. 2014;10:643–60.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Estes ML, McAllister AK. Maternal immune activation: Implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Science. 2016;353:772–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Buka SL, et al. Maternal infections and subsequent psychosis among offspring. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:1032–7.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Solek CM, et al. Early Inflammation Dysregulates Neuronal Circuit Formation In Vivo via Upregulation of IL-1β. J Neurosci. 2021;41:6353–66.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Vallières L, Campbell IL, Gage FH, Sawchenko PE. Reduced hippocampal neurogenesis in adult transgenic mice with chronic astrocytic production of interleukin-6. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci. 2002;22:486–92.
Article
Google Scholar
Kim E, et al. Prenatal exposure to PM10 and NO2 and children’s neurodevelopment from birth to 24 months of age: mothers and Children’s Environmental Health (MOCEH) study. Sci Total Environ. 2014;481:439–45.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Grann VR. Erasing Barriers to Minority Participation in Cancer Research. J Womens Health. 2010;19:837–8.
Article
Google Scholar
CDC (Centers for Disease Control). CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities Report - United States 2011. MMWR 60, 1–114 (2011).
Ceballos, R. et al. Latino Beliefs about Biomedical Research Participation: A Qualitative Study on the US-Mexico Border. J. Empir. Res. Hum. Res. Ethics JERHRE 9, 10–21 (2014).
Campbell JM, Brown RT, Cavanagh SE, Vess SF, Segall MJ. Evidence-based Assessment of Cognitive Functioning in Pediatric Psychology. J Pediatr Psychol. 2008;33:999–1014.
Article
Google Scholar
Albers, C. A. & Grieve, A. J. Test Review: Bayley, N. (2006). Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development– Third Edition. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment. J. Psychoeduc. Assess. 25, 180–190 (2007).
Flynn, R. S., Huber, M. D. & DeMauro, S. B. Predictive Value of the BSID-II and the Bayley-III for Early School Age Cognitive Function in Very Preterm Infants. Glob. Pediatr. Health 7, 2333794X20973146 (2020).
Ronfani L, et al. The Complex Interaction between Home Environment, Socioeconomic Status, Maternal IQ and Early Child Neurocognitive Development: A Multivariate Analysis of Data Collected in a Newborn Cohort Study. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0127052.
Article
Google Scholar
Coscia JM, et al. Effects of Home Environment, Socioeconomic Status, and Health Status on Cognitive Functioning in Children With HIV-1 Infection. J Pediatr Psychol. 2001;26:321–9.
Article
CAS
Google Scholar
Crouse DL, et al. Risk of Nonaccidental and Cardiovascular Mortality in Relation to Long-term Exposure to Low Concentrations of Fine Particulate Matter: A Canadian National-Level Cohort Study. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120:708–14.
Article
Google Scholar